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Taiwan 2002 |
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Taiwan's Ethnic CompositionThe Han 漢, the largest ethnic group in Taiwan, comprise roughly 98 percent of the ROC's population. The remaining 2 percent consists of indigenous peoples from Taiwan's eleven different aboriginal tribes, as well as almost 60 other non-Han minorities from the Chinese mainland.The Han on Taiwan are usually classified into two different groups: early Han Chinese immigrants, who are often referred to as "Taiwanese," and immigrants who moved to Taiwan with the ROC government in 1949, generally referred to as "mainlanders." The Taiwanese group comprises 85 percent of the Han population and is often subdivided even further into the Hakka, who are mostly from Guangdong Province; and the Southern Fujianese. The Fujianese outnumber the Hakka by approximately three to one. The mainlanders comprise slightly less than 15 percent of the Han population. Intermarriage between all four groups--indigenous peoples, Hakkas, Southern Fujianese, and mainlandersis quite common, so the distinguishing characteristics of each group grow fainter with the passage of time.
On October 25, 1998, Taiwan's Retrocession Day, former President Lee Teng-hui first proposed the concept of the "new Taiwanese" to promote ethnic unity. Its highest ideal is to see future generations no longer discriminating between those whose ancestors came to Taiwan earlier and those who came more recently. This concept of the "new Taiwanese" still retains the principle that people in the Taiwan area are ethnically and culturally Chinese, but emphasizes the attachment of the people to Taiwan. The term "Chinese" includes all these peoples and is mainly a cultural designation. Throughout China's long history, numerous ethnic groups from diverse areas were united by a set of complex and generally consistent national characteristics; however, the origins of some of these groups remain unidentified. What is today called the majority Han people has been, from the outset, an aggregate ethnic group named after the Han dynasty. The ancient predecessors of the Han people were the Hua-Hsia 華夏 people. Similarly, Cina was an Indian transliteration of the name of the influential state of Chin 秦, during the Warring States Period 戰國時代. Cina was later transformed into the word "China," which still serves as the western name of the nation.
Taiwan's Indigenous Peoples
An excellent place to get a comprehensive introduction to Taiwan's eleven major
tribes is the Aboriginal Culture Park
原住民文化園區, located in Machia Rural Township
瑪家鄉
in Pingtung County屏東縣. Designated areas of the village display and explain
the common traditional dwellings, utensils, clothing, activities, and customs
of these major peoples. Performances of tribal music and dance are held
daily.
In historical records, Taiwan's indigenous peoples were called the Eastern Ti 東鯷 or Eastern Fan 東番, terms which translate as "savages." During the Ching dynasty, the indigenous peoples were assimilated into Han culture to varying degrees (for details see History).Archaeologists have found evidence of prehistoric human habitation in Taiwan that dates back 12,000 to 15,000 years, indicating that Taiwan's tribes came from at least two different places: southern China and Austronesia. In general, early settlers from southern China settled in northern and central Taiwan, while Australoid settlements were mainly in southern Taiwan and along the eastern coast. There are currently eleven major indigenous peoples in Taiwan Province: the Atayal 泰雅族, Saisiyat 賽夏族, Bunun 布農族, Tsou 鄒族, Thao 邵族, Paiwan 排灣族, Rukai 魯凱族, Puyuma卑南族, Ami 阿美族, Yami 雅美族,and Kavalan 噶瑪蘭族. Plains-dwelling tribes, or the Pingpu 平埔 people (including the Ketagalan, Luilang, Favorlang, Taokas, Pazeh, Papora, Babuza, Hoanya, Siraya, and Sao), have ceased to exist as distinct groups due to assimilation with Han Chinese over the last three centuries. The mountain peoples have maintained their cultural identities by resisting intermarriage. In May 2001, the number of indigenous people in the Taiwan area was approximately 413,519. The Ami account for over one third of the indigenous population, followed by the Atayal and Paiwan. Many indigenous people live in mountainous reservations, which cannot be sold to non-aborigines.
Cultural characteristics formerly common to all or most of the groups include animism; lack of shrines or sanctuaries within tribal settlements (except for the kuba of the Paiwan people); lack of written language; horizontal back-strap loom weaving and in-woven designs; bark cloth making tapa; ironsmithing to make knives, spearpoints, and other implements; slash-and-burn cultivation; cultivation of millet and tuber crops, such as sweet potatoes and taro; production of fermented-grain wine (except among the Yami); treatment of disease by female shamans; the hunting of deer, wild boar, and other animals with bow and arrow, harpoon-like spears, snares, and traps; and head-hunting (except among the Yami). Below are some of the distinctive historical traits of the ten main tribes in Taiwan.
AtayalThe Atayal are distributed over a large area in the northern part of Taiwan's central mountain regions: northern Nantou and Hualien 花蓮, Ilan 宜蘭, and Taipei Counties. They can also be found in Taoyuan, Hsinchu 新竹, Miaoli 苗栗, and Taichung Counties. Their language is divided into the Atayal and Sedeg branches and is apparently not closely related to any other aboriginal language. In the past, their staple foods were corn, rice, sweet potatoes, and taro. The typical Atayal house was semi-subterranean and made of stacked branches and cordwood of varying lengths placed between upright roof supports, with gable roofs made of thatch, bark shingles, or slate. Clothing design was typified by rectilinear woven and beaded motifs. Facial tattooing among both men and women for personal adornment and to ward off evil was a special feature of this people. Their traditions of tattooing, head-hunting, and burial of the dead under dwelling structures ended almost a century ago.The Atayal kinship system is ambilineal, with a tendency for nuclear families preferring patrilocal residence. All three Atayal branches, the Segoleg, Tseole, and Sedeg, have patriarchal social systems. Several leaders from community ritual groups, or gaga, usually controlled the political authority and economy. Atayal society was relatively closed and did not readily accept outsiders. The Atayal believe in spirits and unnamed supernatural powers, which they call utux, as well as spirits of the dead.
SaisiyatIn terms of population, the Saisiyat are the second smallest of the island's aboriginal peoples. Their language is divided into northern and southern dialect groups. The northern Saisiyat live in the mountainous region of Hsinchu County. Most of the Saisiyat of the southern branch live in Miaoli's highlands. The Saisiyat were long threatened by their aggressive Atayal neighbors, and their culture has been strongly influenced by the Atayal. The early Saisiyat practiced crop rotation, slash-and-burn mountain cultivation, hunting, and river fishing. Later, they turned to settled agriculture and forestry.The Saisiyat were among the first to be acculturated by the Han Chinese and adopted Chinese surnames that were transliterations of such Saisiyat totemic surnames as bee, spider, and crab. The basic structural unit of Saisiyat society is the totemic clan linked by geographical and family ties. Three or four households of the same clan name or totem constitute a settlement and clan worship group. Several neighboring settlements might unite to form a village with shared farmland, fishing zones, and mutual assistance units. The Saisiyat habit of tattooing disappeared long ago. However, the Saisiyat in Miaoli County continue to observe a unique rite, the Ceremony of the Dwarfs, or Pastaai, once every two years in November. According to legend, a group of three-foot tall, dark-skinned dwarfs once taught the Saisiyat to farm, sing, and dance, but also harassed and threatened the Saisiyat women. The Saisiyat retaliated by inviting the dwarfs to a ceremony and then pushing them into a ravine as they crossed a narrow footbridge. The original purpose of the ceremony was to appease the souls of these dwarfs.
BununThe Bunun live in mountainous regions of central Taiwan, including Hualien, Taitung 臺東, and parts of Nantou, and Kaohsiung Counties. Six cognate groups are included under the designation Bunun: the Taketodo, Takebaka, Takevatan, Takbanuath, Isibukun, and Takopulan. Alternating cultivation of corn and beans by slash-and-burn agriculture was typical of the Bunun. Corn was their staple food, and beans were an economic crop. Making liquor from corn was also typical of the Bunun. Hunting was a key occupation, and it figures importantly in the Bunun oral literary tradition. Traditional houses were made by digging into the slope of a hillside and constructing an earth and stone terrace in front to provide a level or split-level foundation for the house and a large courtyard.The Bunun are patrilineal, with extended family households grouped in small villages. Usually, these extended families have more than 20 members living in the same house. Patriarchal rule is absolute regarding familial division of labor, but every member has fair access to the settlement's resources, such as arable land and hunting grounds. Their production-consumption mode of living and the group-sharing norm made accumulation of wealth impossible; thus, social stratification did not emerge in Bunun society. Close family ties give Bunun communities greater cohesion than in some other aboriginal groups. They have been relatively accepting of outsiders and have incorporated cultural traits, such as clothing styles and facial tattooing from other peoples, including the Atayal, Tsou, Rukai, and Paiwan. The Bunun practiced the extraction of certain teeth as a sign of social identity and adulthood. Bunun pottery features impressed geometric designs. The Bunun have a strong musical tradition, which was developed partly through the use of song to communicate over long distances. Early Bunun religious beliefs mentioned in oral literature include periodic offerings to the moon. The Bunun also believe in the existence of hanido, or guardian spirit, which determines the innate ability of a person. Bunun male and female shamans, were responsible for treating illnesses through sorcery.
Tsou and ShaoThe Tsou depend mainly on mountain agriculture for their livelihood, but supplement it by hunting, fishing, and raising animals. Traditional Tsou houses had rounded corners and dome-shaped roofs of thatch, which extended nearly to the ground-level packed-mud floor. The men's meeting hut, or kuba, serves as a religious and political center. The activities carried out in the kuba enhance clan social solidarity. The coming-of-age ceremony takes place in these meeting huts, which also once housed the cage for enemy heads and the box of fire-striking implements. The hosa was the basic political unit composed of several small tribes or clans, which established the hierarchy of power and distributed wealth.The Tsou are patrilineal, with high positions, such as chiefs, war leaders, and elders. The former prominence of hunting among the Tsou is demonstrated by the extensive use of leather in their clothing. Their pottery, like that of the Bunun, is also adorned with impressed geometric designs. The Tsou speak one of three languages: Tsou, Kanakanabu, or Saaroa. Spirits are called hicu, ucu, and i'icu in the three language groups, but unlike the Atayal and Bunun, the Tsou also have many particularized names for gods and spirits. Of all aboriginal tongues, the Tsou language has the least in common with the other Formosan languages, suggesting that it was separated from the common ancestral language in the very distant past. Tsou people are found in Chiayi 嘉義 (Mt. Ali 阿里山), Nantou (Sun Moon Lake 日月潭), and Kaohsiung Counties.On August 8, 2001, the Executive Yuan formally approved the Shao, as the tenth aboriginal tribe in Taiwan. The Shao are the smallest of the island's aboriginal peoples with a population between 355-450, living in the Sun Moon Lake area (Yuchi Rural Township 魚池鄉 and Shuili Rural Township 水里鄉) of Nantou County.Because of geography, the Shao were categorized as members of the Tsou in the past. Actually, they are quite different from the Tsou in language, lifestyle, and customs.
Paiwan and RukaiThe Paiwan, closely related in material culture to the Rukai, are divided into the Raval and Butaul peoples. The Butaul can be further subdivided into the Paumaumaq, Chaoboobol, Parilarilao, and Pagarogaro groups. The main occupation of the Paiwan and Rukai is agriculture.The traditional houses of the Paiwan and Rukai are similar to those of the Bunun. A site was leveled by digging into a slope, and then an earth and stone terrace was extended outward to provide a slightly lower than ground level floor and a slightly higher courtyard. Houses of the southern and eastern Paiwan, however, were frequently constructed at ground level. The Paiwan and Rukai are noted for their outstanding wood and stone sculpture. Ancestral figures were often carved in shallow relief into house posts, slate, or plank panels. Paiwan kinship was originally matrilineal but is now ambilineal. The custom is, however, not consistent among all branches. Most marriages are matrilocal. The hereditary chieftainship plays an important role in their oral literature. In the past, the Paiwan observed class distinctions between nobility and commoners, and interclass marriage was forbidden.
PuyumaTraditionally, the Puyuma depended on growing millet, taro, sweet potatoes, and beans on hillside plots cleared by burning. They supplemented farming with fishing and hunting. The Puyuma live in a flatland area of Taitung County, and they have been greatly influenced by Paiwan and Rukai culture. The Puyuma have a multilineal kinship system with ritual groups. The extended family inheritance goes to the eldest daughter, but the kinship system is ambilineal. The positions of chieftains and shamans are patrilineal. Like the closely-related Paiwan, Puyuma society is stratified into "chiefly" (noble) families and commoners. Marriage between the two classes is, however, not prohibited. The more prominent ritual groups in each village cluster around the various "chiefly" families.The clergy come from the leading clans' ancestral worship groups, which are called karumangan. Since 1964, there have been only three groups, which are responsible for performing ceremonies during harvests twice a year. The largest basic unit of a Puyuma settlement is called a samawan. Each samawan has a karumahan, or center of ancestor worship, and a parakoang, or men's meeting house. Karumahan of the same name belong to the same ancestor. Men's meeting houses accept members at age 15. Samawan are divided into saja munan. The latter are composed of groups of families, which share the same ancestor and bear the collective name of their leading clan. A chief's power is symbolized by his role in ancestor worship and the transfer of tribal knowledge, not from monopolization of land, as in the Paiwan and Rukai.
AmiThe Ami, the largest indigenous group in terms of population, are mainly plains dwellers, living in the valleys of the Hualien-Taitung area. The Ami can be divided into five groups based on geography, customs, and language: the northern Ami are also known as the Nanshih 南勢 group; the central Ami belong to the coastal and Hsiukuluan 秀姑巒 groups; and the southern Ami can be classified into the Peinan 卑南 and Hengchun 恆春 groups. The Ami began to use oxen to cultivate paddy fields relatively early. They continue to fish, but now hunt only for recreation.Ami houses are traditionally built flat on the ground, with the main beams and posts made of hard wood, and subsidiary beams usually of bamboo or betel palm. Walls were made of double layers of plaited dwarf bamboo, with grass thatch in between to keep out the cold wind. Due to a comparatively advanced level of agriculture capable of supporting a considerable number of people, traditional Ami villages were relatively large, with populations of between 200 and 1,000. The Ami are the only indigenous group living on the island of Taiwan to preserve the art of pottery making. Pottery in the form of food vessels, water ewers, rice pots, and earthenware steamers is made by women. Sacrificial vessels in varying sizes are also made, and these are buried with their owner at death. Ami society is matrilineal, and the oldest woman in the extended family is generally the household head. Men, however, exercise authority when village councils of leading men from each village ward are held in the men's meeting houses. A rigid system of authority based on age is enforced. The Ami have elaborate cosmogonic myths, which may be recited only by trained male "lineage priests" and are subject to strict recitation-related taboos.
YamiThe Yami live almost exclusively on Orchid Island (Lanyu 蘭嶼), 44 nautical miles off the eastern coast of Taitung County. Culturally, the Yami are closely related to the inhabitants of the Batan Islands of the Philippines, and the Yami language and Ivatan dialect of the Batanes are mutually intelligible. The Yami language also seems to be quite closely related to the Paiwanic languages on Taiwan.Fishing is central to the Yami economy, and many of the fish caught are preserved by drying. The basic cooperative and distributive units of the Yami are fishing groups formed by kinsmen in villages from the same region. Ceremonies related to fishing have become part of the Yami culture. The Yami grow taro extensively, as well as sweet potatoes, yams, and millet. Men are responsible for laying out fields, building boats, fishing, constructing homes, and making baskets, pottery, and metalwork. Women tend the fields, gather taro, cook, and weave cloth. Yami dwellings are somewhat similar to those of the Paiwan, Rukai, and Bunun: a rectangular pit is first dug, then low stone walls line the top of the house pit as protection against frequent and fierce typhoons. Elevated "rest houses" called tagakal are used for sleeping or working when it is too hot to work in the house. The Yami live in nuclear families and tend towards patrilocality. Inheritance is patrilineal. The Yami are constantly haunted by a fear and hatred of ghosts. They think ghosts exercising evil influence are the cause of all mischief. The Yami do not have regular shamans, but they do believe magical amulets to be effective against mischief. The Yami are known for their unique and beautifully decorated dugout canoes, which can carry eight to ten people. The Yami are Taiwan's only indigenous group known to practice silversmithing, and the only people that have never practiced headhunting or made alcohol. There is no chieftainship. One of the more notable of the many colorful Yami celebrations is an elaborate ceremony held upon the launching of a newly-completed boat.
The Life of Taiwan's Indigenous Peoples TodayChanges are taking place in tribal culture and lifestyles, as the descendants of Taiwan's earliest inhabitants adjust to rapid modernization. Young people are leaving traditional occupations, such as farming, hunting, and fishing, and are taking up factory and construction work in the cities.The use of Formosan languages varies according to area. On Orchid Island, for example, Yami is still widely spoken; however, throughout Taiwan, native speakers are dwindling in number, and young people are usually not as fluent in their ancestral language as they are in Mandarin or Taiwanese. Bilingual education is being promoted and the publication of stories and legends is being undertaken as oral literary traditions attenuate (see Language). A six-year research program covering a comprehensive history of Taiwan's indigenous peoples, was started in 1993 by the Historical Research Commission of Taiwan Province 臺灣省文獻會.Some native traditions, such as periodic tribal festivals that celebrate a rich harvest with singing and dancing, are still maintained and, although most tribes have switched to Western attire, loincloths are still common attire on Orchid Island. By adopting Han Chinese dietary habits, most indigenous people now eat a much more varied diet than did their forefathers. Animistic and shamanistic beliefs have largely given way to Christianity, due to intensive missionary efforts. Education is increasingly providing a way for the young to improve their lives. During the Japanese occupation, only 19 tribe members graduated from Taiwan's middle school. In 1999, the number of aboriginal students totaled 85,203, with 6,780 in university or college, and 11,765 in high school. Since 1991, the government has given 25 special scholarships for aboriginal students to study overseas. Members of Taiwan's indigenous peoples are increasingly active in local and national politics. More than 6,000 work in various government agencies, 252 serve in central or local representative organizations, and the number is growing. As of June 2001, two served as ambassadors-at-large and national policy advisors to the president, nine held seats in the Legislative Yuan, two were councilors in special municipalities, and 55 were city and county council members. Thirty serve as magistrates of rural townships with predominantly indigenous constituents. The overall educational and income levels of Taiwan's indigenous people, however, still lag behind those of Han Chinese, and many face acute social problems such as alcoholism, unemployment, and prostitution. Therefore, in 1992 the Ministry of the Interior began implementing a six-year Living Guidance Plan for Aborigines Residing in Cities 都市原住民生活輔導計畫. The plan calls for spending approximately US$8 million to promote indigenous culture and to provide urban-based indigenous people with subsidized medical care, legal advice, adolescent educational guidance, employment counseling, and business loans. Additionally, a construction plan to improve the roads linking tribal villages with nearby metropolitan communities was begun in 1992, further reducing the gap in living standards.The cabinet-level Council of Indigenous Peoples of the Executive Yuan 行政院原住民族委員會 is the agency responsible for indigenous affairs at the central government level. Corresponding organizations at the local government level are the Taipei City Government's Council of Aboriginal Affairs 臺北市政府原住民事務委員會, and the Kaohsiung City Government's Commission of Indigenous Affairs 高雄市政府原住民事務委員會. In addition to government agencies, over 40 private organizations are devoted to tribal welfare, including World Vision of Taiwan 臺灣世界展望會.
Search for an Appropriate NameHeated controversy flared in Taiwan during the 1992 constitutional amendment process in the Second National Assembly, regarding the official name to be used for the island's indigenous peoples. For years, the various indigenous peoples had been collectively called shan-pao 山胞 "mountain compatriots," and the term is incorporated into the Constitution of the Republic of China. Many indigenous people proposed that this be changed, claiming that the term conveyed a degree of discrimination. They asserted that the term yuan-chu-min 原住民 (aborigines or indigenous peoples) is more suitable.Parliamentarians representing indigenous people said that they wanted appropriate wording in the Constitution as a step toward giving these citizens the "dignity and justice" they seldom experienced in society. Indigenous people were looking forward to gaining greater social status via a constitutional amendment, which they felt would enhance their legal protection and lead to increased assistance from the government to improve the overall standard of living among the indigenous population. During the fourth extraordinary session of the Second National Assembly at its 32nd plenary meeting in July 1994, National Assembly members adopted the term yuan-chu-min to replace the expression shan-pao, when they passed a series of Additional Articles of the ROC Constitution 中華民國憲法增修條文. According to the articles, "The state shall accord the aborigines in the free area legal protection of their status and the right to political participation. It shall also provide assistance and encouragement for their education, cultural preservation, social welfare, and business undertakings. The same protection and assistance shall be given to the people of the Kinmen and Matsu areas."
Mongolian and Tibetan AffairsThe ROC government agency which serves Mongolians and Tibetans worldwide, is the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission 蒙藏委員會 of the Executive Yuan. The commission has organizations in many foreign countries, including the United States, Canada, Germany, Switzerland, India, and Nepal, to serve local Mongolian and Tibetan communities. The commission's goals are to build and maintain a worldwide liaison network for Mongolians and Tibetans, offering programs to improve their living conditions and raise the level of education. The commission has established a scholarship program for outstanding overseas Tibetan students to complete their education.The commission publishes a colorful monthly pictorial, Mongolian Tibetan Friendship 蒙藏之友, with articles in Chinese, English, Mongolian, and Tibetan, featuring current political affairs, as well as Mongolian and Tibetan culture, history, and art. The commission also provides regular Mongolian and Tibetan language broadcasts.
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