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Taiwan 2001 |
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Taiwan's Ethnic Composition
The Han 漢, the largest ethnic group in Taiwan, comprise roughly 98 percent of the ROC's population. The remaining two percent consists of indigenous peoples from Taiwan's nine different aboriginal tribes, as well as almost 60 other minority groups, including the Manchu 滿, Mongolian 蒙, Uighur 維吾爾, Tibetan 藏, Miao 苗, Yi 夷, Gerbao (Yao) 傜, and Chuang peoples. The Han on Taiwan are usually classified into two different groups: early Han Chinese immigrants, who are often referred to as "Taiwanese," and immigrants who moved to Taiwan with the ROC government in 1949, generally referred to as "mainlanders." The Taiwanese group comprises 85 percent of the Han population and is often subdivided even further into the Hakka, who are mostly from Guangdong Province; and the Southern Fujianese, who are primarily from China's southeastern province of Fujian. The Fujianese outnumber the Hakka by approximately three to one. The second group, mainlanders, comprise slightly less than 15 percent of the Han population. Intermarriage between all four groups--indigenous peoples, Hakkas, Southern Fujianese, and mainlanders--is quite common, so the distinguishing characteristics of each group grow fainter with the passage of time. On October 25, 1998, Taiwan's Retrocession Day, former president Lee Teng-hui first proposed the concept of the "new Taiwanese" to promote ethnic unity. Its highest ideal is to see future generations no longer discriminating between those whose ancestors came to Taiwan earlier and those who came more recently. This concept of the "new Taiwanese" still retains the principle that people in the Taiwan area are ethnically and culturally Chinese, but emphasizes the attachment of the people to their land. The term "Chinese" includes all these peoples and is mainly a cultural designation. Throughout China's long history, numerous ethnic groups from diverse areas came to be united by a set of complex and generally consistent national characteristics; however, the origins of some of these groups remain unidentified. What is today called the majority Han people has been, from the outset, an aggregate ethnic group named after the Han dynasty. The ancient predecessors of the Han people were the Hua-Hsia 華夏 people. Similarly, Cina was an Indian transliteration of the name of the influential state of Chin 秦, during the Warring States Period 戰國時代. Cina was later transformed into the word "China," which still serves as a general western name for the nation. The Emergence of the Han CultureMembers of the ethnic majority group on the Chinese mainland have, for most of the Christian era, traditionally referred to themselves as the Han race, and this is still true on Taiwan today. This is probably because of the relatively long period of social, political, economic, and military consolidation and stability enjoyed by the Chinese nation during the Han dynasty, its first sustained centralized imperial state with a coherent culture. The name "Han" recalls the glory of the dynasty, which spanned the latter part of the second century B.C. through the second century A.D., and roughly paralleled the ancient Roman empire in stature and cultural legacy throughout Asia. The term "Han," however, does not fully account for the cultural and ethnic origins of the Chinese people. It is, instead, an inclusive name for the various peoples that lived together on the central plains of China for at least two millennia prior to the time of Christ. Chinese today refer to themselves as the descendants of Emperor Yen 炎帝 and Emperor Huang 黃帝, the legendary founders of the Hua-Hsia nation. The imperial Huang clan was later divided into ten tribes that became the main components of the Hua-Hsia people. The people who first settled in the region of the sacred Mt. Hua 華山 in China's western mountain range, together with the Hsia people, who established themselves near the Hsia River 夏水 (the upper course of the Han River 漢水, a tributary of the Yangtze River), were referred to as the Hua-Hsia people. Both areas were located in the central southern region of Shaanxi Province. The Hsia tribe lived in an area that comprises modern-day northern Shaanxi Province, northwestern Gansu Province, parts of Qinghai Province, all of Sichuan Province, and southwestern Shanxi Province. Gradually, the Hsia migrated eastwards into the border areas of what is presently Henan Province. The Hsia were not the only tribe living in the central plains. Other ethnic groups with distinct tribes and territories, included the Eastern Yi 東夷 group who lived along the Huai and Yangtze rivers and contiguous areas; the Chu-Wu 楚吳 group, who lived along the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze; and the Pai-Yueh 百越 group who lived along the southeastern coast and southwestern mountains. Eventually, however, these groups were all assimilated into the Hua-Hsia people. Subsequently, various ethnic groups throughout the region had extensive contact in one form or another with neighboring areas: the Eastern Hu 東胡 tribes with the Eastern Yi tribes, the Miao-Yao 苗瑤 tribes with the Chu-Wu tribes, and the Miao-Yao and Po-Shan 僰撣 tribes with the Pai-Yueh tribes. Recent archaeological findings throughout the Chinese mainland have generated conflicting theories about the ultimate origin of Han Chinese culture. The above concept of a nascent culture spreading outward from the Central Plains has been challenged by discoveries of simultaneous cultural development all over the Chinese mainland. Remnants of Paleolithic civilizations can be found in both northern and southern China, while Neolithic implements have been unearthed in various areas beyond the Central Plains, such as the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, Lake Tai, the Han River delta, Manchuria, Gansu and Qinghai provinces, the coastal region of southeastern China, and Taiwan. The complete picture of early Han culture is still unclear to anthropologists. Cultural Amalgamation and AssimilationOver time, many ethnic groups living adjacent to the Hua-Hsia people were assimilated into what ultimately became known as Han culture. The original ethnic stock for this amalgam primarily included the Hua-Hsia, the Eastern Yi, the Chu-Wu, and the Pai-Yueh groups mentioned above. Other non-Han peoples were assimilated into Han culture at different points in China's history: the Huns 匈奴 and the Hsienpei 鮮卑 of Tungusic origin between the second and third centuries A.D.; the Eastern Hu (a northern tribe) and the Jurchen (女真, ancestors of the Manchus) from the tenth through the early 13th centuries; the Mongolians toward the end of the 13th century; and the Manchus through their conquest of the Chinese central plains in the 17th century. While the two latter groups retain a separate ethnic identity to a certain extent, all have fused with and become key elements of Han culture, which most Chinese regard as the cultural mainstream of the Chinese nation. Thus, the Chinese today are a pluralistic people: the land area they occupy encompasses a wide variety of geographical features; many diverse ethnic groups combine to form one people; languages belonging to distinct families and branches coexist; and the national culture incorporates elements from differing ethnic traditions. Taiwan's Indigenous Peoples
An excellent place to get a comprehensive introduction to Taiwan's nine major tribes is the Aboriginal Culture Park, 原住民文化園區, located in Machia Rural Township 瑪家鄉 in Pingtung County屏東縣. Designated areas of the village display and explain the common traditional dwellings, utensils, clothing, activities, and customs of the nine major peoples. Performances of tribal music and dance are held daily. In historical records, Taiwan's indigenous peoples were called the Eastern Ti 東鯷 or Eastern Fan 東番, terms which translate as "savages." During the Ching dynasty, the indigenous peoples were assimilated into Han culture to varying degrees (for details see History). Archaeologists have found evidence of prehistoric human habitation in Taiwan that dates back 12,000 to 15,000 years, indicating that Taiwan's tribes came from at least two different places: southern China and Austronesia. In general, early settlers from southern China settled in northern and central Taiwan, while Australoid settlements were mainly in southern Taiwan and along the eastern coast. There are currently nine major indigenous peoples in Taiwan Province: the Atayal 泰雅族, Saisiyat 賽夏族, Bunun 布農族, Tsou 鄒族, Paiwan 排灣族, Rukai 魯凱族, Puyuma卑南族, Ami 阿美族, and Yami 雅美族. Plains-dwelling tribes, or the Pingpu 平埔 people (including the Ketagalan, Luilang, Favorlang, Kavalan, Taokas, Pazeh, Papora, Babuza, Hoanya, Siraya, and Sao), have ceased to exist as distinct groups due to assimilation with Han Chinese over the last three centuries. The mountain peoples have maintained their cultural identities by resisting intermarriage. In 2000, the number of indigenous people in the Taiwan area was approximately 402,000. The Ami account for over one third of the indigenous population, followed by the Atayal and Paiwan. The Yami, with only 4,051 members, is the smallest group. Many indigenous people live in mountainous reservations, which cannot be sold to non-aborigines.
Cultural characteristics formerly common to all or most of the groups include animism; lack of shrines or sanctuaries within tribal settlements (except for the kuba of the Paiwan people); lack of written language; horizontal back-strap loom weaving and in-woven designs; bark cloth making (tapa); ironsmithing to make knives, spearpoints, and other implements; slash-and-burn cultivation; cultivation of millet and tuber crops, such as sweet potatoes and taro; production of fermented-grain wine (except among the Yami); treatment of disease by female shamans; the hunting of deer, wild boar, and other animals with bow and arrow, harpoon-like spears, snares, and traps; and head-hunting (except among the Yami). Below are some of the distinctive historical traits of the nine main tribes in Taiwan.
AtayalThe Atayal are distributed over a large area in the northern part of Taiwan's central mountain regions: northern Nantou and Hualien 花蓮, Ilan 宜蘭, and Taipei Counties. They can also be found in Taoyuan, Hsinchu 新竹, Miaoli 苗栗, and Taichung Counties. Their language is divided into the Atayal and Sedeg branches and is apparently not closely related to any other aboriginal language. In the past their staple foods were corn, rice, sweet potatoes, and taro. The typical Atayal house was semi-subterranean and made of stacked branches and cordwood of varying lengths placed between upright roof supports, with gable roofs made of thatch, bark shingles, or slate. Clothing design was typified by rectilinear woven and beaded motifs. Facial tattooing among both men and women for personal adornment and to ward off evil was a special feature of this people. Their traditions of tattooing, head-hunting, and burial of the dead under dwelling structures ended almost a century ago. The Atayal kinship system is ambilineal, with a tendency for nuclear families preferring patrilocal residence. All three Atayal branches, the Segoleg, Tseole, and Sedeg, have patriarchal social systems. Several leaders from community ritual groups, or gaga, usually controlled the political authority and economy. Atayal society was relatively closed and did not readily accept outsiders. The Atayal believe in spirits and unnamed supernatural powers, which they call utux, as well as spirits of the dead. SaisiyatIn terms of population, the Saisiyat are the second smallest of the island's aboriginal peoples. Their language is divided into northern and southern dialect groups. The northern Saisiyat live in the mountainous region of Hsinchu County. Most of the Saisiyat of the southern branch live in Miaoli's highlands. The Saisiyat were long threatened by their aggressive Atayal neighbors, and their culture has been strongly influenced by the Atayal. The early Saisiyat practiced crop rotation, slash-and-burn mountain cultivation, hunting, and river fishing. As the amount of available land diminished, they turned to settled agriculture and forestry. The Saisiyat were among the first to be acculturated by the Han Chinese and adopted Chinese surnames that were transliterations of such Saisiyat totemic surnames as bee, spider, and crab. The basic structural unit of Saisiyat society is the totemic clan linked by geographical and family ties. Three or four households of the same clan name or totem constitute a settlement and clan worship group. Several neighboring settlements might unite to form a village with shared farmland, fishing zones, and mutual assistance units. The Saisiyat habit of tattooing disappeared long ago. However, the Saisiyat in Miaoli County continue to observe a unique rite, the Ceremony of the Dwarfs, or Pastaai, once every two years in November. According to legend, a group of three-foot tall, dark-skinned dwarfs once taught the Saisiyat to farm, sing, and dance, but also harassed and threatened the Saisiyat women. The Saisiyat retaliated by inviting the dwarfs to a ceremony and then pushing them into a ravine as they crossed a narrow footbridge. The original purpose of the ceremony was to appease the souls of these dwarfs. BununThe Bunun live in mountainous regions of central Taiwan, including Hualien, Taitung 臺東, and parts of Nantou, and Kaohsiung Counties. Six cognate groups are included under the designation Bunun: the Taketodo, Takebaka, Takevatan, Takbanuath, Isibukun, and Takopulan. Alternating cultivation of corn and beans by slash-and-burn agriculture was typical of the Bunun. Corn was their staple food, and beans were an economic crop. Making liquor from corn was also typical of the Bunun. Hunting was a key occupation, and it figures importantly in the Bunun oral literary tradition. Traditional houses were made by digging into the slope of a hillside and constructing an earth and stone terrace in front to provide a level or split-level foundation for the house and a large courtyard. The Bunun are patrilineal, with extended family households grouped in small villages. Usually, these extended families have more than 20 members living in the same house. Patriarchal rule is absolute regarding familial division of labor, but every member has fair access to the settlement's resources, such as arable land and hunting grounds. Their production-consumption mode of living and the group sharing norm made accumulation of wealth impossible; thus, social stratification did not emerge in Bunun society. Close family ties give Bunun communities greater cohesion than in some other aboriginal groups. They have been relatively accepting of outsiders and have incorporated cultural traits, such as clothing styles and facial tattooing from other peoples, including the Atayal, Tsou, Rukai, and Paiwan. The Bunun practiced the extraction of certain teeth as a sign of social identity and adulthood. Bunun pottery features impressed geometric designs. The Bunun have a strong musical tradition, which was developed partly through the use of song to communicate over long distances. Early Bunun religious beliefs mentioned in oral literature include periodic offerings to the moon. The Bunun also believe in the existence of hanido, or guardian spirit, which determines the innate ability of a person. Bunun male and female shamans, were responsible for treating illnesses through sorcery. TsouThe Tsou depend mainly on mountain agriculture for their livelihood, but supplement it by hunting, fishing, and raising animals. Traditional Tsou houses had rounded corners and dome-shaped roofs of thatch, which extended nearly to the ground-level packed-mud floor. The men's meeting hut, or kuba, serves as a religious and political center. The activities carried out in the kuba enhance clan social solidarity. The coming-of-age ceremony takes place in these meeting huts, which also once housed the cage for enemy heads and the box of fire-striking implements. The hosa was the basic political unit composed of several small tribes or clans, which established the hierarchy of power and distributed wealth. The Tsou are patrilineal, with high positions, such as chiefs, war leaders, and elders. The former prominence of hunting among the Tsou is demonstrated by the extensive use of leather in their clothing. Their pottery, like that of the Bunun, is also adorned with impressed geometric designs. The Tsou speak one of three languages: Tsou, Kanakanabu, or Saaroa. Spirits are called hicu, ucu, and i'icu in the three language groups, but unlike the Atayal and Bunun, the Tsou also have many particularized names for gods and spirits. Of all aboriginal tongues, the Tsou language has the least in common with the other Formosan languages, suggesting that it was separated from the common ancestral language in the very distant past. Tsou people are found in Chiayi 嘉義 (Mt. Ali 阿里山), Nantou (Sun Moon Lake), and Kaohsiung Counties. Paiwan and RukaiThe Paiwan, closely related in material culture to the Rukai, are divided into the Raval and Butaul peoples. The Butaul can be further subdivided into the Paumaumaq, Chaoboobol, Parilarilao, and Pagarogaro groups. The main occupation of the Paiwan and Rukai is agriculture. The traditional houses of the Paiwan and Rukai are similar to those of the Bunun. A site was leveled by digging into a slope, and then an earth and stone terrace was extended outward to provide a slightly lower than ground level floor and a slightly higher courtyard. Houses of the southern and eastern Paiwan, however, were frequently constructed at ground level. Paiwan and Rukai are noted for their outstanding wood and stone sculpture. Ancestral figures were often carved in shallow relief into house posts, slate, or plank panels. Paiwan kinship was originally matrilineal but is now ambilineal. The custom is, however, not consistent among all branches. Most marriages are matrilocal. The hereditary chieftainship plays an important role in their oral literature. In the past, the Paiwan observed class distinctions between nobility and commoners, and interclass marriage was formerly forbidden. PuyumaTraditionally, the Puyuma depended on growing millet, taro, sweet potatoes, and beans on hillside plots cleared by burning. They supplemented farming with fishing and hunting. The Puyuma live in a flatland area of Taitung County, and they have been greatly influenced by Paiwan and Rukai culture. The Puyuma have a multilineal kinship system with ritual groups. The extended family inheritance goes to the eldest daughter, but the kinship system is ambilineal. The positions of chieftains and shamans are patrilineal. Like the closely-related Paiwan, Puyuma society is stratified into "chiefly" (noble) families and commoners. Marriage between the two classes is, however, not prohibited. The more prominent ritual groups in each village cluster around the various "chiefly" families. The clergy come from the leading clans' ancestral worship groups, which are called karumangan. Since 1964, there have been only three groups, which are responsible for performing ceremonies during harvests twice a year. The largest basic unit of a Puyuma settlement is called a samawan. Each samawan has a karumahan, or center of ancestor worship, and a parakoang, or men's meeting house. Karumahan of the same name belong to the same ancestor. Men's meeting houses accept members at age 15. Samawan are divided into saja munan. The latter are composed of groups of families, which share the same ancestor and bear the collective name of their leading clan. A chief's power is symbolized by his role in ancestor worship and the transfer of tribal knowledge, not from monopolization of land, as in the Paiwan and Rukai. AmiThe Ami, the largest indigenous group in terms of population, are mainly plains dwellers, living in the valleys of the Hualien-Taitung area. The Ami can be divided into five groups based on geography, customs, and language: the northern Ami are also known as the Nanshih 南勢 group; the central Ami belong to the coastal and Hsiukuluan 秀姑巒 groups; and the southern Ami can be classified into the Peinan 卑南 and Hengchun 恆春 groups. The Ami began to use oxen to cultivate paddy fields relatively early. They continue to fish, but now hunt only for recreation. Ami houses are traditionally built flat on the ground, with the main beams and posts made of hard wood, and subsidiary beams usually of bamboo or betel palm. Walls were made of double layers of plaited dwarf bamboo, with grass thatch in between to keep out the cold wind. Due to a comparatively advanced level of agriculture capable of supporting a considerable number of people, traditional Ami villages were relatively large, with populations of between 200 and 1,000. The Ami are the only indigenous group living on the island of Taiwan to preserve the art of pottery making. Pottery in the form of food vessels, water ewers, rice pots, and earthenware steamers is made by women. Sacrificial vessels in varying sizes are also made, and these are buried with their owner at death. Ami society is matrilineal, and the oldest woman in the extended family is generally the household head. Men, however, exercise authority when village councils of leading men from each village ward are held in the men's meeting houses. A rigid system of authority based on age is enforced. The Ami have elaborate cosmogonic myths, which may be recited only by trained male "lineage priests" and are subject to strict recitation-related taboos. YamiThe Yami live almost exclusively on Orchid Island (Lanyu 蘭嶼), 44 nautical miles off the eastern coast of Taitung County. Culturally, the Yami are closely related to the inhabitants of the Batan Islands of the Philippines, and the Yami language and Ivatan dialect of the Batanes are mutually intelligible. The Yami language also seems to be quite closely related to the Paiwanic languages on Taiwan. Fishing is central to the Yami economy, and many of the fish caught are preserved by drying. The basic cooperative and distributive units of the Yami are fishing groups formed by kinsmen in villages from the same region. Ceremonies related to fishing have become part of the Yami culture. The Yami grow taro extensively, as well as sweet potatoes, yams, and millet. Men are responsible for laying out fields, building boats, fishing, constructing homes, and making baskets, pottery, and metalwork. Women tend the fields, gather taro, cook, and weave cloth. Yami dwellings are somewhat similar to those of the Paiwan, Rukai, and Bunun: a rectangular pit is first dug, then low stone walls line the top of the house pit as protection against frequent and fierce typhoons. Elevated "rest houses" called tagakal are used for sleeping or working when it is too hot to work in the house. The Yami live in nuclear families and tend towards patrilocality. Inheritance is patrilineal. The Yami are constantly haunted by a fear and hatred of ghosts. They think ghosts exercising evil influence are the cause of all mischief. The Yami do not have regular shamans, but they do believe magical amulets to be an effective against mischief. The Yami are known for their unique and beautifully decorated dugout canoes, which can carry eight to ten people. The Yami are Taiwan's only indigenous group known to practice silversmithing, and the only people that have never practiced headhunting or made alcohol. There is no chieftainship. One of the more notable of the many colorful Yami celebrations is an elaborate ceremony held upon the launching of a newly-completed boat. The Life of Taiwan's Indigenous Peoples TodayChanges are taking place in tribal culture and lifestyles, as the descendants of Taiwan's earliest inhabitants adjust to rapid modernization. Young people are leaving traditional occupations, such as farming, hunting, and fishing and are taking up factory and construction work in the cities. The vigor of Formosan languages varies according to area. On Orchid Island, for example, Yami is still widely spoken; however, throughout Taiwan, native speakers are dwindling in number, and young people are usually not as fluent in their ancestral language as they are in Mandarin or Taiwanese. Bilingual education is being promoted and the publication of stories and legends is being undertaken as oral literary traditions attenuate (see Language). A six-year research program covering a comprehensive history of Taiwan's indigenous peoples, was started in 1993 by the Historical Research Commission of Taiwan Province 臺灣省文獻會. Some native traditions, such as periodic tribal harvest festivals that celebrate a rich harvest with singing and dancing, are still maintained and, although most tribes have switched to Western attire, loincloths are still common attire on Orchid Island. By adopting Han Chinese dietary habits, most indigenous people now eat a much more varied diet than did their forefathers. Animistic and shamanistic beliefs have largely given way to Christianity, due to intensive missionary efforts. Education is increasingly providing a way for the young improve their lives. During the Japanese occupation, only 19 tribe members graduated from Taiwan's middle school. The number of aboriginal students in 1998 totaled 81,195; 5,096 in university or college, and 15,755 in high school. Since 1991, the government has given 25 special scholarships for aboriginal students to study overseas. Members of Taiwan's indigenous peoples are increasingly active in local and national politics. More than 6,000 work in various government agencies, and the number is growing. As of June 2000, nine held seats in the Legislative Yuan, two as councilors in special municipalities, and 55 as city and county council members. Thirty serve as magistrates of rural townships with predominantly indigenous constituents. Similarly, Taitung County, where indigenous peoples comprise a large proportion of the electorate, has a county magistrate of indigenous descent. The overall educational and income levels of Taiwan's indigenous people, however, still lag behind those of Han Chinese, and many face acute social problems such as alcoholism, unemployment, and prostitution. Therefore, in 1992 the Ministry of the Interior began implementing a six-year Living Guidance Plan for Aborigines Residing in Cities 都市原住民生活輔導計畫. The plan calls for spending approximately US$8 million to promote indigenous culture and to provide urban-based indigenous people with subsidized medical care, legal advice, educational guidance for adolescents, employment counseling, and business loans. Additionally, a construction plan to improve the roads which link tribal villages with nearby metropolitan communities was begun in 1992, further reducing the gap in living standards. The cabinet-level Council of Aboriginal Affairs of the Executive Yuan 行政院原住民委員會 is the agency responsible for indigenous affairs at the central government level. Corresponding organizations at the local government level are the Taipei City Government's Commission for Native Taiwanese Affairs 臺北市政府原住民事務委員會, and the Kaohsiung City Government's Aboriginal Affairs Council 高雄市政府原住民事務委員會. In addition to government agencies, over 40 private organizations are devoted to tribal welfare, including World Vision of Taiwan 臺灣世界展望會. Search for an Appropriate NameHeated controversy flared in Taiwan during the 1992 constitutional amendment process in the Second National Assembly, regarding the official name to be used for the island's indigenous peoples. For years, the various indigenous peoples had been collectively called shan-pao 山胞 "mountain compatriots," and the term is incorporated into the Constitution of the Republic of China. Many indigenous people proposed that this be changed, claiming that the term conveyed a degree of discrimination. They asserted that the term yuan-chu-min 原住民 (aborigines or indigenous peoples) is more suitable. Parliamentarians representing indigenous people said that they wanted appropriate wording in the Constitution as a step toward giving these citizens the "dignity and justice" they seldom experienced in society. Indigenous people were looking forward to gaining greater social status via a constitutional amendment, which they felt would enhance their legal protection and lead to an increase in assistance from the government to improve the overall standard of living among the indigenous population. During the fourth extraordinary session of the Second National Assembly at its 32nd plenary meeting in July 1994, National Assembly members adopted the term yuan-chu-min to replace the expression shan-pao, when they passed a series of Additional Articles of the ROC Constitution 中華民國憲法增修條文. According to the articles, "The state shall accord the aborigines in the free area legal protection of their status and the right to political participation. It shall also provide assistance and encouragement for their education, cultural preservation, social welfare, and business undertakings. The same protection and assistance shall be given to the people of the Kinmen and Matsu areas."
Mainland MinoritiesThe Chinese nation has many ethnic minorities that are distinct from China's mainstream Han culture, both in terms of cultural practices and historical traditions. They include the Manchus of the nine provinces of northeastern China (Manchuria); the Mongolians north of the Great Wall; the Uighurs and other Islamic peoples in Xinjiang Province; the Tibetans living in Tibet, Xikang, and Qinghai provinces and surrounding areas; and the Miao, Yi, Gerbao (Yao), Chuang, Kelao 仡佬, Li 黎, and others in the southern provinces of Sichuan, Xikang, Yunnan, Guizhou, Hunan, Guangxi, Guangdong, and the mountain areas of Hainan Island. In fact, many of these "minorities" outnumber the Han Chinese in certain provinces. A total of 57 different ethnic groups on the Chinese mainland has been identified. The ethnic diversity of the Chinese people is demonstrated in economic lifestyles and religious practices. Since the neolithic period, agriculture has been the predominant economic activity of the Han people. In the early stages of development, the Han group lived primarily along the banks of China's three main rivers: the Yellow River; the Yangtze River (along with its major tributaries the Huai River and the Han River); and the Pearl River. The Yellow River region was characterized by a semiarid climate with loose, fertile soil well suited for growing millet. The mild climate of the Yangtze and Pearl rivers provided plentiful rainfall year-round, so rice could be planted every season in the southernmost part of the country. Thus, millet and rice were the staple crops of the early Han culture. As Han culture continued to develop, the use of hydraulics, irrigation, and water transportation facilitated agriculture and commerce. While the vast majority of the Han people were employed in agriculture, commerce, industry, education, and government service were also viable occupations. Today, agriculture remains the dominant economic activity of the Chinese people, although the demands of modern nationhood are drawing larger numbers from the countryside to other economic activities in urban areas. The Tibetans and other peoples of western China, have traditionally had a mixed economy of agriculture and nomadism. The Uighurs of Xinjiang, or Chinese Turkestan, have historically engaged in either agriculture or nomadism, supplemented by commerce. The minority peoples of Jilin and Heilongjiang provinces rely on either fishing and hunting or nomadism, while the Mongolians have been mainly nomads. A large proportion of Han Chinese engage in folk religious practices, often mixed with elements of Taoism and Buddhism (see Religion). Moslems constitute a significant minority, scattered across the entire country. With the exceptions of the worshipping conventions of Islam, Christianity, and Judaism, there are no set patterns of worship for most Han Chinese. It is not unusual for each member of a given Han family to have individual religious beliefs. The father might believe in Buddha, while the son believes in Christ. The husband might go to mass, while the wife recites the Goddess of Mercy Mantra 觀世音. Each family member has freedom of worship, and many choose not to practice any religion at all. Such religious pluralism has not hindered the development of a unified and consistent set of ethics in Han society over the ages. Ethical conventions have consistently remained within the bounds of a set of orthodox principles: loyalty, filial piety, benevolence, righteousness, love, faith, harmony, and peace. These principles have applied to all strata of society, since the founding of the Han dynasty in 206 B.C. Tibetans and Mongolians mostly follow the sect of Buddhism known as Tantric Buddhism; whereas minority peoples of southwestern China, such as the Tai 傣, tend to be adherents of the Hinayana school of Buddhism prevalent in Thailand and Burma. Some minority peoples of Jilin and Heilongjiang provinces subscribe to shamanism, and other ethnic groups living in the valleys of the southwestern mountain ranges practice animism. There are also a number of Protestants and Roman Catholics, as a result of Western missionary efforts. Mongolian and Tibetan AffairsThe ROC government agency which serves Mongolians and Tibetans worldwide, is the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission 蒙藏委員會 of the Executive Yuan. The commission has organizations in many foreign countries, including the United States, Canada, Germany, Switzerland, India, and Nepal, to serve local Mongolian and Tibetan communities. The commission's goals are to build and maintain a worldwide liaison network for Mongolians and Tibetans, offering programs to improve their living conditions, raise the level of education, and elevate vocational training. These training programs receive assistance from the Chinese Refugees Relief Association 中國災胞救助總會, which helps exiled Tibetans and Mongolians come to Taiwan to participate in such programs. The commission puts out a colorful monthly pictorial, Mongolian Tibetan Friendship 蒙藏之友, with articles in Chinese, English, Mongolian, and Tibetan. Articles discuss current political affairs, as well as features on Mongolian and Tibetan culture, history, and art. The commission also provides regular Mongolian and Tibetan language broadcasts. The Tibetan Children's Home in Taiwan 西藏兒童之家 provides a supportive home environment to Tibetan children, mainly from Nepal, who have been sent to Taiwan to receive an education. The home, established in 1980, has helped more than 100 children over the years. The children attend regular Chinese schools in Taipei, but receive special instruction in the Tibetan language, culture, and religion at the home. In 1991, the home was moved from Taipei City to the suburban town of Sanhsia 三峽.
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