 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
|
|||||
|
 |
 |
Chapter 4 First Han Government—Jheng Island Kingdom (1661-1683) |
|
 BackNext
|
The rule of the Jheng (鄭) family had a major influence on Taiwan’s history for two important reasons. First, Jheng Cheng-gong’s (鄭成功) conquest of Taiwan was a victory for the Han Chinese over a Western colonial superpower. Although Han immigrants arrived in Taiwan early and in great numbers, it was not until 1661 to 1662 that Jheng Cheng-gong established the first Han political administration in Taiwan. Han people, therefore, viewed (and still view) Jheng as a national hero for securing Taiwan. Second, the Jheng regime can be regarded as a pioneer of Taiwan independence. After taking over Taiwan, Jheng not only resisted the newly established Ching dynasty on the mainland, but also planned a southern expedition to the Philippines, which showed his ambition to expand his territory and establish an independent state. Although some argue that his ultimate goal was to restore the previous Ming dynasty, this can hardly be verified due to his early death and the premature end of his campaign. However, his son, Jheng Jing (鄭經), followed by his grandson, Jheng Ke-shuang (鄭克塽), succeeded him and ruled Taiwan as an independent state until 1683 when the last Jheng surrendered to the Ching. The Jheng administration exercised full authority over Taiwan and dealt with foreign countries as a sovereign nation. It can therefore be said to be the first independent government based on Taiwan.The Jheng rulers appropriated parts of the Dutch system while formulating systems and policies of their own. They established a Chinese-style political system, introduced Han culture to Taiwan, and built an economy with equal emphasis on agriculture and trade. In southern Taiwan, the Han Chinese gradually overwhelmed the aborigines to become the dominant ethnic group, paving the way for the complete “Sinicization”(or Hannization) of Taiwan during the Ching dynasty.
The Jheng Kingdom Establishes the First Chinese System of Government on Taiwan
In 1648, Jheng Cheng-gong swore fealty to Emperor Yongli (永曆) of the Ming dynasty. After the Emperor was defeated and then killed in 1662, Jheng Cheng-gong continued to use Yongli’s period of reign as a political symbol in his fight against the Manchu court, as did his son and grandson.
Immediately after Jheng Cheng-gong had captured Provintia and trapped the Dutch in Fort Zeelandia in 1661, he began the work of founding a state. He renamed Provintia as “Dongdu Mingjing (東都明京 Eastern capital of the Ming dynasty)” and Zeelandia as “Anping Fort” in memory of his birthplace. He set up a central government with six branches in charge of official personnel, finances, rites, military affairs, judicial affairs, and construction. The central government consisted of Chengtian Prefecture (承天府) in Provintia, which ruled over two counties, Tiansing County (天興縣) in the north and Wannian County (萬年縣) in the south, and a pacification command (安撫司) on Penghu. For all practical purposes, this system functioned as a national government with central and local administrations. Jheng was even accused by some people of adopting a royal system of government. In any case, his son and grandson succeeded him to become rulers of the new kingdom as an independent state, conducting diplomatic affairs with Japan, Holland, Spain and England. It should come as no surprise that some foreign history books referred to the island under Jheng rule as the “Kingdom of Taiwan.”
After Jheng Cheng-gong’s death, Jheng Jing succeeded his father but relied heavily on a capable advisor, Chen Yong-hua (陳永華), to govern the state. Chen was a gifted counselor and praised as a reincarnation of Jhuge Liang (諸葛亮 a statesman renowned for his political savvy depicted in the classic Chinese historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms). Chen planned and carried out a number of major political, economic, and cultural development projects on Taiwan. In addition to expanding administrative organizations, Chen constructed Tainan’s Confucius Temple (now an important historical site) and attached great importance to education and the cultivation of young talent. He also built temples to purify the minds of the people and prohibited gambling. After a few years, Taiwan had become an overseas paradise for Chinese from the mainland, who could now enjoy safe and comfortable lives.
Trade Expansion through Establishment of a Merchant Fleet
The Jheng family had always been seafarers, and had established a flourishing trade empire in the Far East. Jheng Cheng-gong inherited this tradition and developed it further, accumulating considerable political and military power. At first, Jheng Cheng-gong’s influence was confined to the narrow, impoverished eastern seaboard of China, however, and he required a stronger economic base if he was to defy the power of the Manchus, who had established the Ching dynasty on the mainland. His successful conquest of Taiwan only afforded him a temporary foothold, as the island had limited resources and had not yet been developed enough to provide any substantial benefit. Commerce was therefore vital to Taiwan’s existence, if the Ching court’s economic blockade was to be overcome.
At first, Jheng set up a merchant guild system consisting of double five-hong (行 or trading groups), to carry out foreign trade on the mainland. Five hong (山五商) conducted trade via mountain routes and were categorized as “gold” (jin 金), “wood” (mu 木), “water” (shuei 水), “fire” (huo 火), and “earth” (tu 土). They were established in Hangzhou (杭州) and its vicinity, where they purchased silk and other products which they transported to Xiamen. The other five hong (海五商), specializing in sea trade, were based in Xiamen from whence they exported Chinese goods overseas. These were categorized as “benevolence” (ren 仁), “righteousness” (yi 義), “courtesy” (li 禮), “wisdom” (jhih 智), and “honesty” (sin 信). In addition, Jheng also partook in smuggling with mainland merchants. Thanks to the Ching court’s ban on maritime trade, he could monopolize coastal trade and was able to accumulate finances that were sufficient to maintain an army. After the destruction of the five-hong system by the Ching, his son Jheng Jing built a large merchant fleet to carry out international trade, and open Taiwan to trade with foreign merchants, such as the British East India Company. Taiwan was, therefore, not only able to survive, it prospered, and even became capable of launching a counter-attack on China.
Development of Taiwan through Agriculture and Commerce
In addition to establishing Han Chinese political rule on Taiwan, Jheng’s rule also contributed to the island’s economic development. Equal emphasis was placed on both commerce and agriculture, making them the foundation of Taiwan’s economy ever since. Apart from continuing the mercantilist policies of the Dutch, Jheng also opened more land to farming and further developed Taiwan’s agriculture.
Jheng Cheng-gong placed special emphasis on the cultivation of staple crops. Having sufficient food was needed to resist the Ching court’s economic blockade. He needed to feed his thousands of troops and the swelling ranks of immigrants from China. Fortunately, Taiwan had an abundance of uncultivated land that was ideal for agricultural development. Nevertheless, the shortage of skilled labor was a problem. Jheng made the most of the manpower available to him. First, he assigned soldiers to cultivate undeveloped wilderness via an army-farming system he had used in 1661 whilst besieging the Dutch. Second, he encouraged all of his subjects, civilian officials, military personnel, and common people, to reclaim wasteland on the condition that they “reported the area of land before it is cultivated.” Third, he encouraged Chinese agricultural laborers to migrate to Taiwan. Finally, he introduced more advanced farming techniques and technology from China, such as draft oxen and the scythe, to replace the primitive tools and low-yield methods used by the natives, thereby raising productivity.
The development undertaken by the Jheng rulers centered on southern Taiwan in present Tainan City and Tainan County (臺南縣、市) and extended south as far as Kaohsiung (高雄) and north into Chiayi (嘉義). Only scattered settlements could be found farther north, with central and northern Taiwan remaining largely unexplored. Criminals and captured soldiers were banished to the north, and only in emergencies would Jheng station larger forces there.
Westward Expedition, Internal Strife, and Collapse of the Jheng State
Under the rule of the Jheng family, the population of Han Chinese on Taiwan reached about 120,000. Through political power and a more advanced culture, the Han Chinese brought the aborigines under control and even outnumbered them in parts of the plains. However, Jheng Jing’s policy of invading the Chinese mainland was to drain the island’s resources and set the Jheng state on the path to defeat.
In 1674, the civil war of the Three Feudatories (三藩之亂) broke out in China. Considering this a golden opportunity to overthrow the Ching dynasty, Jheng Jing led his forces west to join the three feudal lords who had initiated the anti-Ching rebellion, Geng Jing-jhong (耿精忠), Wu San-guei (吳三桂), and Shang Jhih-sin (尚之信). Initially, the war favored the rebels, with both southern Fujian and eastern Guangdong falling into their hands. Later, however, the alliance dissolved into an internecine conflict between Jheng and two of the other leaders, Geng and Shang, and in 1680, with his army weakened, Jheng was forced to retreat from the mainland.
This disastrous campaign claimed the lives of many soldiers and drained the island’s coffers. It also set in motion the eventual collapse of the Jheng state. Originally, the Ching court had never intended to send forces overseas, but in the aftermath of the rebellion, the Manchu rulers began devising a plan to eliminate Jheng. China’s coastal population was forcibly moved inland to isolate Taiwan from mainland supplies, and the Ching court began mustering a navy in preparation for an invasion of Taiwan.
Jheng Jing died in 1681. In the scramble for power following his death, Jheng Ke-shuang emerged victorious over his brother, but actual authority fell into the hands of the powerful courtier Feng Si-fan (馮錫範), and the affairs of the state slid into disarray. Two years later, the Ching general Shih Lang (施琅) captured and occupied Penghu after a bloody war. Seeing that his advantage had been lost, Jheng and his officials surrendered without resistance.
