Discovering the Beauty of Taiwan's Ecology

In order to protect the global environment and to avoid adverse impacts from international politics and trade, the Republic of China (Taiwan), though not a member of the United Nations, has always complied with international environmental treaties and acted as a responsible member of the global village. In May 1992, the Executive Yuan established the ministerial-level inter-departmental agency Global Change Working Group to coordinate activities related to United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and other global environmental issues. In August of 1994, the working group was further reorganized and elevated as Committee on Global Change Policy (CGCP), under which the UNFCCC Working Group was established. Due to the growing importance of sustainable development to countries around the world, the government decided to integrate all domestic matters related to sustainable development. In August 1997, CGCP was expanded to form the National Council for Sustainable Development (hereinafter referred to as the "Council"), while the Atmospheric Protection and Energy Working Group under the Council was responsible for affairs related to the Montreal Protocol and the UNFCCC. In 1999, the Council was further elevated and chaired by the Vice Premier, thus showing our commitment in response to the UNFCCC.

The emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) are closely related to the use of energy. Since Taiwan produces very little energy on its own, most of the energy resources for domestic use are imported. In 1998, about 80% of Taiwan's energy supply relied on imported coal and petroleum. Under the present industrial energy structure, maintaining the competitiveness of Taiwan's industries while reducing carbon dioxide emissions has become one the major challenges for our efforts in reducing GHG emissions.

The annual carbon dioxide emissions per capita in Taiwan are estimated to have been increasing at a rate of 7.5%. The per capita emission was 5.57 tons in 1990, 7.59 tons in 1995, and 9.83 tons in 2000, showing that Taiwan's economy is still fast developing. If Taiwan were to reduce its GHG emissions to 1990 level by the year 2010 as Annex I countries, we would have to reduce our projected 2010 GHG emissions by 227%. Emission reduction of this magnitude would certainly create tremendous impact on Taiwan's economy and would also go against the principle of fairness under the UNFCCC.
Taiwan is an island with a high population density. Since 74% of the island's surface is mountainous, the majority of the population and industrial activities are concentrated in the remaining 26% flatland. Such condition has created one of the world's highest environmental loading, rendering our GHG reduction efforts more difficult.

Nevertheless, in response to the Kyoto Protocol adopted in December 1997, and searching for a harmonized policy among economic development, energy stability and environmental protection, Taiwan convened the National Energy Conference in May 1998. The objectives were to discuss the developments in the UNFCCC and our response strategies, energy policy and energy mix restructuring, industrial policy and restructuring, energy efficiency improvement and energy technology development, and energy policy tools. Consensus on our position in the UNFCCC and strategies for emissions reduction were also reached.

Taiwan is located off the Southeastern rim of Asia, facing the Pacific Ocean in the east and the Taiwan Strait in the west. The island of Taiwan extends from 119 E to 124 E in longitude and 21 N to 25 N in latitude, and its total area is about 36,006 km2. Taiwan is 377 km long north to south and 142 km east to west at its widest point. Its coastal length is about 1,140 km. The land over 100 m above sea level makes up about two-third of the total area, and arable land makes up about one-fourth. The average annual temperature is about 22-25¢" by about 25% of arable land. By the end of 1998, the population of Taiwan totaled 21.93 million and increased to 22.28 million in 2000, and 23.92 million by 2010. The national circumstances of Taiwan are shown in Table 1.

Since the Second World War, economic development in Taiwan went through four periods: agriculture, light industry, heavy industry, and technological industry. This transition created an economic miracle in Taiwan; our economic growth rate ranged from 5.39-13.59% between 1966 and 2000, with the exception of below 5% in 1974, 1975, 1982, 1985, and 1998. In recent years, our industrial development has slowed, while our service industry is expanding year after year, reaching 65.6% of GDP by 2000. This shows that Taiwan's industrial structure is gradually transforming toward that of a developed country.

Note: 1998 GDP calculated with exchange rate of NT$32 = US$1
NE: Not Estimated

In 2000, energy supply in Taiwan totaled 106.23 million kiloliters of oil equivalent (KLOE), of which 51.4% was composed of petroleum, 30.8% coal, 9.0% nuclear power, 6.7% natural gas, and 2.1% hydroelectric power. Imported energy made up over 96% of total energy supply. Energy consumption totaled 90.91 million KLOE, of which the industrial sector consumed the most with 48.5%, transportation 17.0%, residential 12.5%, commercial 5.7%, and agriculture 1.5%. The compositions of Taiwan's energy supply and consumption are shown in Figures 1 and 2.

Figure 1. Taiwan's Energy Supply Composition in 1990 & 2000

Formula Applicable pic

Source: Energy Commission, MOEA, Taiwan Energy Statistics Annual Report (2001)

Figure 2. Taiwan's Energy Consumption Composition in 1990 & 2000

Formula Applicable pic

Source: Energy Commission, MOEA, Taiwan Energy Statistics Annual Report (2001)

The government of the Republic of China (Taiwan) is divided into three main levels: central, provincial/municipal, and county/city, each of which has well-defined powers. The central government consists of the Office of the President and five governing branches (called "Yuan") namely the Executive Yuan (Cabinet), the Legislative Yuan (Legislature), the Judiciary Yuan, the Examination Yuan, and the Control Yuan. Local governments comprise provincial, municipal, county and township governments. Laws must be passed by the Legislative Yuan after three readings and promulgated by the President. The interdepartmental agency "National Sustainable Development Council" led by the Vice Premier of the Executive Yuan, is the highest level body responsible for affairs related to the UNFCCC.

Chapter 2 - Greenhouse Gas Emissions Inventories

In Taiwan's recent inventories of greenhouse gas emissions, estimates of CO2 emissions were calculated in accordance with IPCC methodology. For estimates of CH4 and N2O emissions, real measurement data were used in addition to IPCC methodology. In credibility and accuracy, the estimate of CO2 emissions is highest, while those for CH4 and N2O emissions are far lower and would require further research. The inventories of greenhouse gas emissions in Taiwan are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Taiwan's CO2, CH4, and N2O Inventories for 1990 (Thousand Tons)

GHG Source/Sink Categories	CO2	CH4	N2O
Total Emissions (Net)	114,620	663.3	45.2
1. Energy (sectoral approach)	120,969	80.8	1.4
A. Fuel Combustion	120,969	9.6	1.4
B. Fugitive Emissions from Fuels	NE	71.2	0.0
2. Industrial Processes	11,547	0.2	0.6
3. Solvent and Other Product Use	NA	NA	NA
4. Agriculture	NA	119.5	41.6
5. Land-use Change and Forestry	-17,896	0.0	0.0
6. Waste	NE	462.8	1.6
7. Other	NE	NE	NE

Source: Statistics from Chapter 2

According to calculations using IPCC's reference approach, CO2 emissions of fuel combustion in Taiwan totaled approximately 121.0 million metric tons, 0.5% of the world's total CO2 emission in 1990. In the same year the corresponding per capita value was 5.57 metric tons, ranking number 24 in the world. The industrial sector emitted 55% of the total CO2 from fuel combustion, 16% from the transportation sector, and 13% from the residential sector. Within the industrial sector, metal-based industries constitute approximately 30.2%, chemical industries 23.5%, non-metal mining industries 16.9%, textile industries 9.3%, wood and paper industries 6.3%, food industries 4.1% and others 9.7%. In 2000, the total CO2 emission from fuel combustion increased to 229.8 million metric tons, equivalent to an annual growth rate of 5.5%, and the per capita emission was 9.8 metric tons.

Methane emission in the Taiwan area in 1990 was about 663.3 thousand metric tons, from which emissions from solid waste disposal were the biggest (67%). Next largest methane emissions were from rice cultivation (9%) and manure management (6%). In 1994, the total methane emissions reached 954.5 thousand metric tons, of which emissions from solid waste disposal constituted 75% and solid fuels 5.0%. The total methane emission in 2000 fell to 595.2 thousand metric tons, of which 59% from solid waste disposal on land, 13.0% from solid fuels, 6.7% from rice cultivation, and 6.1% from wastewater handling.

Nitrous oxide emissions in the Taiwan area in 1990 were about 45.2 thousand metric tons, from which emissions from agricultural and livestock activities were the largest (92%), and the next largest nitrous oxide emissions were from the waste sector (3.5%). The total nitrous oxide emission in 2000 was about 37.87 thousand metric tons, of which 87.0% from agricultural activities, 7.1% from the combustion of fuels, and 4.8% from the waste sector. Because of the continuous shrinking of local agricultural activities, nitrous oxide emissions have been decreasing year after year. However, recent studies reveal that the estimation was probably low on the emissions from agricultural activities and from the transportation sector. This estimation did not include the emission from digesters of residential wastes. Further investigations will be carried out soon.

On the emissions of other greenhouse gases, our government has been observing the international standards set by the Montreal Protocol to ban the imports and production of carbon fluorocarbon products (CFCs) since 1996. The government has also been tightening the control of hydrofluorocarbon products (HFCs) annually, aggressively promoting the recovery and reuse of CFCs, and enforces other measures such as prohibiting illegal imports. Greenhouse gases such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs) are mainly emitted from industrial processes. The HCFCs emissions in 1998, 1999 and 2000 in Taiwan calculated by IPCC method are 17442, 16726 and 5612 thousand metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalents respectively. The PFCs emissions in 1998, 1999 and 2000 are 536, 1310 and 2721 thousand metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalents respectively whereas those values of SF6 are 61, 99 and 114 thousand metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalents respectively.

Chapter 3 - Impacts

With the natural environment of a subtropical island, Taiwan is very vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. In particular, the impacts would include sea-level rise, lack of water resources, primary industries, public health, ecosystems, etc. The direct impacts of sea-level rise would be the flooding of coastal lands, coastal erosion, and retreat of coastal front. Coastal communities would face the problems of relocation and subsequent social adaptation. The impacts on water resources would include the increase in frequency and extent of droughts, lack of water resources, and impacts on people's livelihood and industrial development. In addition, the increase in CO2 concentration would enhance photosynthesis of plants and promote forest and agricultural growth. However, it would also promote the growth of pests and propagation of disease vectors.

According to related research on the impacts of sea-level rise in the Taiwan region, flooding scenarios of the Tsang-Wan River delta and the I-Lan sedimentary plain were modeled for rising levels of 0.5, 1, and 1.5 meters. The results show that flooded area in the An-Ping district of Tainan City would reach 30.6%, 50.0%, and 72.5%, respectively, and in the Wu-Jiage area of I-Lan the flooded areas could reach 13.0%, 27.2%, and 40.2%, respectively. In addition, using the Chia-Nan plains as a case study, with sea level rises of 1, 2, 3 and 4 meters, the flooded coastal area of Tainan could reach 119.1, 162.7, 207.4 and 253.1 km2, respectively. The flooded coastal area in Chiayi could reach 51.9, 75.8, 99.8, and 121.4 km2, respectively.

Regarding the impacts on water resources, our academic research statistics found that between 1953-1990, the amount of annual rainfall in northern and eastern Taiwan showed an increasing trend, while that in central and southern parts showed a decreasing trend. The number of days of no rain in southern part also had an increasing trend. According to a 1995 estimate by the Water Resource Bureau, the amount of runoff in Taiwan would decrease by 4% by 2050, and possibly by 4.4% during the driest year.

Regarding the impacts on agriculture and forestry, our research shows that if increasing CO2 concentration causes a rise in temperature and decrease in rainfall, corn production would decrease by 10-20% and wheat production by 7-8%. In addition, if the temperature in Taiwan's terrestrial area increases by 1-4¢" mlock spruce, dragon spruce, oak, and broad-leaf evergreens could rise in elevation. In recent years, the widespread decrease of Japanese eel (Anguilla japonica) catch in Taiwan could also be related to climate change. Moreover, when the temperature increases to 27¢" te could increase concentrations of allergy sources (such as fungus and pollen), raising the rate and severity of asthma and hay fever. The portion of children with asthma in Taiwan has increase from 1.3% in 1974 to 5.08% in 1985, 5.8% in 1991, and 10.79% in 1994. Room dust and fungus are found to be the main sources of allergies. In central and southern Taiwan, dengue fever has usually occurred during summer and autumn. As a result of climate change, dengue fever is now spreading to the northern area, and in some cases it even occurred in December.

Regarding ecosystems, global warming and the rise of sea level would have direct and indirect impacts on aquaculture in the shallow seas of Taiwan. In addition, high water temperature during the summer period could increase the rate of massive loss of oyster population in the western coast of Taiwan. According to our research, an increase of 10¢" e include: complete impact assessment of sea-level rise in the Taiwan region; coastal zone protection and protection from tides; establishing new drainage systems; reducing impacts from sea-level rise; protection of coastal wetlands and ecosystems; control of large-scale coastal development; obtaining experiences from international cooperation; planning assistance for those who cannot recover from industrial transition; delimitation of flood plain areas and implementation of flood insurance systems; and establishing monitoring systems.

The adaptation policy on the impacts of water resources with regard to development, utilization, management and protection includes: primary development of surface water and secondary development of groundwater; actively develop and combine efforts in distribution of water; fortify management in water rights and collection of water tariffs; strengthen water utilization management to raise water utilization efficiency; reinforce management, protection, and containment of water sources; modernize water table monitoring and database development, as well as research and development of water resource technologies. Measures for disaster prevention include: construction of flood prevention structures; strengthening maintenance management; establishment of disaster prevention and response mechanism; sustaining research in disaster prevention technology; and establishing engineering and non-engineering flood prevention measures. The drought prevention and emergency response include: establishment of drought prevention and response systems; promotion of related work on prevention and response; and devising future development goals and response measures.

Adaptation to impacts on industries of agriculture and livestock includes: early depiction of weather pattern as a result of climate change, and to plan and protect agricultural production regions; change in concepts on irrigation, promote rational fertilization methods and use of slow-rate fertilizer; accelerating growth of species adaptive to new environments; early prevention of possible new plant diseases; draft response measures to agriculture and livestock production affected by inclement weather and new climate; improvement on animal feed to reduce their excrements; and improvement on animal housing and feeding management, as well as research on technology of processing animal excrements.

The adaptation measures for public health include: monitoring and systematic investigation of diseases from air, drinking water, food and vectors; monitoring and investigation to understand distribution of disease vectors; investigation and analysis on respiratory and cardiovascular diseases caused by air pollution; systematic extermination of sources of disease vectors; continuing improvement on air pollution problems; strengthening controls on toxic chemicals; establishment of hygiene and environmental protection engineering; reinforcing research and environmental protection education in diseases caused or accelerated by environmental changes; as well as preparation of public health response to impacts of environmental changes.

The adaptation measures for forest ecosystems include: integration of investigative information and establishing monitor systems on forest environments and land utilization; establishing temporal and spatial information management systems on forest ecology for decision-support tools; establishment of national land information system; establishment of forest land classification system; accelerating forestation; harvesting wood from commercial forestation zones and subsequent re-forestation, cultivation, and accelerating forest carbon fixation; encouraging utilization of renewable resources from wood.

Chapter 5 - Policy and Measures

To attain overall policy objectives, the government has been following the reference emissions set by the National Energy Conference in addressing the reduction of greenhouse gases. According to the nature of emissions and reduction costs, various quotas would be set up and distributed among different sectors. The head agencies of the sectors would then set up specific and practical reduction schedule and immediate action plans to meet their quotas. In addition, overall considerations are given to the relationships among economy, environment and energy, to obtain the baseline information on greenhouse gas emissions, to project future scenarios, and to establish models to analyze economic growth and reduction cost. As for major development projects, the increase in carbon dioxide emission has to be considered in the environmental assessment. The government has also been investigating an emission trading system for greenhouse gases.The response policy to the reduction of greenhouse emission by the government will then include energy policy and adjustment of energy structure, industrial policy and adjustment of industrial structure, and the corresponding policy on environmental protection.

Under the policy and measures listed above, the government's response actions for different greenhouse gases are explained below. First, on the reduction of carbon dioxide, concrete measures in energy conversion, industry, transportation, agriculture, as well as residential and commercial sectors are explained as follows:

1. Energy Conversion Sector
The objectives of the energy policy in the Taiwan area are to establish a free, orderly, efficient and clean system of energy supply while considering the existing environment, indigenous characteristics, innovations, popularity and feasibility. In addition, liberalization and privatization of the energy industry would be promoted in order to build a comprehensive energy policy balancing energy, environment, and economic development. The main stakeholders are the electric power and petroleum companies and their measures on reduction of carbon dioxide emissions.
2. Industrial Sector
The reduction measures from the industrial sector are as follows: voluntary energy conservation, implementation of energy audit system, promotion of energy conservation action plans, guidance on waste reduction, promotion of incentives and price cuts, energy conservation technical services, clean production technical guidance, strengthening educational dissemination, promotion of joint implementation projects, and promotion ISO-14001 environmental management system.
3. Transportation Sector
The feasible measures on reduction from the transportation sector are as follows: elevating and setting energy consumption standards of vehicles, promotion of energy saving transportation, complete mass transit systems, promotion of fuel tax from gasoline sales, implementing strategy for transportation management system, and development of intelligent transportation system.
4. Agricultural Sector
The main tasks of the agriculture sector include forestry management, green projects for cities and communities, encouraging and subsidizing private forestation, promoting energy conservation of fishing vessels, and guidance on renewal of fishing vessels.
5. Residential and Commercial Sectors
The four measures taken by the residential and commercial sectors are as follows: raising standards on efficiency standards of electric appliances, strengthening energy indices of building shells, establishing certification of energy conservation for architects, and establishing total control system for energy consumption of buildings.

The concrete measures of our government to reduce methane emissions are:

1. Agricultural, Fishery and Livestock Sectors
Adjustment of water quantity and irrigation method such as intermittent irrigation; adjustment of quantity and method of organic fertilizer; developing drought resistant/bearing species that require less water; continuing dissemination of ban on burning of agricultural residues; assistance on correct method of agricultural residue treatment or processing utilization technology; strengthening assistance on improvement, control and ban of livestock pollution sources; assistance on effective collection, treatment and re-utilization of livestock excrements. These measures are carried out to reduce methane emissions by decreasing excrement production, increasing the collection of methane and its utilization rate, as well as elevating the treatment technology of livestock excrements.
2. Wetland, Sea, River and Lake
Strengthen the control and enforcement of ban on sources of waste water pollution; decrease organic pollutants of sewage from cultivation and the excrements from cultivated animals; accelerate the construction of public underground sewage system; and restore polluted sea, rivers and lakes.
3. Landfill Treatment
Control methane emission from sanitary landfills; promote the recovery and utilization of methane from landfills; and promote building of waste incinerators.

The concrete measures by our government to reduce nitrous oxide emissions are:
1. Agricultural products
Adjustment of water permeation to control water content in soil (both wet and dry fields); correct usage and dosage of fertilizer; developing slow-rate fertilizer; cultivating species with high nitrogen utilization; continuing dissemination of ban on burning agricultural residues; assistance on correct method of agricultural residue treatment or processing utilization technology.
2. Livestock industry
Planning adjustment of livestock industry to adequate development scale; effective collection and treatment of animal excrements; improving treatment technology on animal excrements; increasing methane utilization; and improving formula for animal feed.
3. Environmental protection
Strengthening inspection and control of fixed pollution sources and collection of air pollution fees; and strengthening inspection and adjustment of mobile air pollution sources and collection of air pollution fees.

As for concrete measures to reduce other greenhouse gases, since July 1, 1989, the government has controlled chemicals that are destructive to the ozone layer in accordance with the Montreal Protocol. Greenhouse gases such as fluorochlorocarbons, tetrachlorocarbons, trichloroethane, halofluorobromo-carbons have been banned since January 1, 1996. As for sulfur hexafluoride, perfluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons, further relevant investigation on their emission would be needed. The reduction response measures include: abiding by Phase 2 control timeline of the Montreal Protocol, promoting recovery and re-utilization of CFCs, importing and developing alternatives for HFCs and other substitute technology.

Chapter 6 -
Research and Development, International Cooperation and Exchange, Education and Dissemination

The government places great importance on research and development of science and technology. Since 1984, the funding has been over 1% of the GDP. In 1997, the funding amounted to 156.3 billion NT (approximately 5 billion US), reaching 1.9% of the GDP. The main agencies responsible for promoting the research on greenhouse gases and climate change are the National Science Council and other agencies such as the Environmental Protection Administration, the Council of Agriculture, the Central Weather Bureau, the Energy Commission, the Industrial Development Bureau, the Water Resources Bureau, and other agencies. The National Science Council promotes large-scale (integrated) and basic research, whereas the other agencies carry out respective administrative matters and policy research.

In order to grasp the latest development in the UNFCCC and other related information on climate change, the government has assigned the National Science Council, the Environmental Protection Administration and the Industrial Development Bureau the responsibility for updating relevant information.

The National Science Council is responsible for promoting systematic monitoring in Taiwan. As early as 1990, the International Global Atmospheric Chemistry Project (IGAC) under the International Geosphere-Biosphere Program (IGBP) conducted studies on background atmospheric chemistry in Taiwan. In 1998, the National Science Council commenced a large-scale project, 'Monitoring, Analysis and Simulation of Atmospheric Chemistry in Taiwan and Neighboring Regions'. This project aimed at studying the emission and absorption of greenhouse gases in the region, monitoring the background atmospheric chemistry and the radiation field, international cooperation on monitoring, exchange on information and numerical simulation. The monitor system for the atmospheric chemistry of Taiwan and the neighboring region has been established, and preliminary results were obtained.

On the participation of greenhouse gas reduction technology and climate change research, Taiwan is a full member of international research organization on 'global change'. For example, the Academia Sinica is a representative in the International Geosphere-Biosphere Program (IGBP), and the National Science Council is a member of the International Group of Funding Agencies of Global Change Research Projects (IGFA).

In December 1999, the National Science Council and the Energy Commission completed the 'Long-term Development Plan on Energy Technology'. The major points of this long-term plan are:

(1) Research Directions
1. Energy conservation and increasing energy efficiency, including the technologies on energy conservation and energy efficiency;
2. Development and utilization of new energy, including renewable energy, new use of energy and energy from waste; and
3. Energy management technology, including drafting regulatory standards, rationalization of energy price structure, design of incentive mechanism, energy saving life style, studies on cost effectiveness, and social welfare consideration.

(2) Promotion Strategies
This includes augmentation of research organization and human resources, appropriating enough research budgets, coordinating, integrating and supervising measures, as well as enhancing application promotion and advancing international cooperation. It is hoped that through energy conservation, use of clean energy, and elevating the efficiency and management that our energy structure may be adjusted and carbon dioxide emission may be reduced.

Taiwan as an island is very vulnerable to environmental impacts resulting from climate change. For the past 30 years, Taiwan has been thriving on economic development to raise the quality of life. Meanwile, it has been lacking behind on the application research on environmental restoration, public health and ecological preservation. Hence, technical supports on subsidence, water resources development, protection of public health, and ecological restoration are very much in need. Furthermore, because Taiwan is highly dependent on imported energy, new and clean energy technologies are to be gradually developed and applied. However, the cost of such technology is very high, and it would be quite difficult to reach these goals. Hence, support is very much needed from advanced countries on new and clean energy technologies.

On participation in the UNFCCC, Taiwan had participated in the third and fourth inter-government negotiation committee in 1991 as a NGO observer before the signing of the convention. It also took part in the Earth Summit in 1992. Taiwan has participated in the SBSTA and SBI meetings since 1993 and the meetings of the Conference of the Parties since 1995. However, we have not been able to take part in the discussions or fully express our views.

The subject of climate change is of concern not only concerned by researchers in Taiwan, but also emphasized by educators in schools and society. The Environmental Protection Administration is responsible for establishing the environmental protection policy and the dissemination of related laws and regulations, advancement of environmental protection measures, and reinforcement of environmental education via schools and social institutions. In 1997, the EPA initiated the 'National Environmental Protection Program', outlining the objectives in three phases. The Science Education Department of the National Science Council is responsible for the promotion of research in environmental education, research in basic theoretical teaching and class curriculum, and studies on environmental concepts and behavior. The Environmental Protection Division of the Ministry of Education is assigned to promote 'school environmental education' and 'social environmental education'. Further, courses related to climate changes are being offered in colleges and universities to disseminate seeds of environmental education. Also, there are more than 50 civic environmental protection groups and organizations in Taiwan that are important providers of social education, forming the indispensable part in helping the government promote education on climate change.

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